Which of the following terms refers to a systematic error?

A systematic error (also known as bias) is a consistent deviation from the true value in a measurement process. Unlike random errors, which vary unpredictably, systematic errors consistently affect measurements in the same direction. These errors can result from flaws in equipment, calibration, or the measurement process itself. Identifying and minimizing systematic errors are crucial for accurate and reliable measurements. Terms like validity and reliability relate to different aspects of measurement quality, but they do not specifically refer to systematic errors1.

References: 1: ASQ Certified Manager of Quality/Organizational Excellence